This page covers the degradation of semiconductor photodetectors used in optical links and sensing: PIN photodiodes and avalanche photodiodes (APDs) in InGaAs/InP, InGaAs/InAlAs and GaAs/AlGaAs. It covers the growth of dark current, the drift of the APD breakdown voltage, wear-out at the junction perimeter and the guard ring, the acceleration of APD life by current and temperature, and junction failure under optical or electrical overload. The device physics is on the PIN Photodiode and APD pages, displacement and ionizing damage of detectors on the Radiation page, and moisture effects on the Environmental and Chemical page.

1. Why It Happens

Trigger: Reverse bias near breakdown with avalanche current at high temperature (Huang et al.; Choi et al.; Yun et al.); high photocurrent or reverse current at high voltage (Park et al.).
Mechanism, surface and passivation: Ionic contamination in the passivation at the junction perimeter creates a leakage path that eventually shorts the junction under field, and impurities drifting under field and temperature lower the breakdown voltage (Yun et al.).
Mechanism, edge breakdown: In planar APDs the field concentrates near the guard ring, and premature edge breakdown there causes failure (Choi et al.).
Mechanism, overload: Joule heating at moderate voltage and energetic carriers at high voltage break the crystal at the end facet of a waveguide photodiode (Park et al.).
What sets the rate: The avalanche current, which dominated the thermal stress in planar InGaAs/InP APDs (Choi et al.); the temperature, with activation energies of 0.46 to 1.55 $eV$ by device (Yun et al.; Huang et al.; Choi et al.); bias, since unbiased bakes degraded much less (Yun et al.; Choi et al.).
Failure criterion: A breakdown voltage change of 1 $V$ (Huang et al.) or 10 per cent (Choi et al.); a dark current above 1 $μ A$ at 0.9 to 0.95 of the breakdown voltage (Yun et al.; Choi et al.).

2. Where to Look

Location: The junction perimeter under the passivation (Yun et al.); the guard ring of planar APDs (Choi et al.); the end facet of waveguide photodiodes (Park et al.).
Signature: A dark current that rises exponentially with stress time and a breakdown voltage that falls linearly (Yun et al.); a hot spot at the guard ring in IR thermography (Choi et al.); an abrupt short at an overload threshold (Park et al.).
Confirm with: Dark current and breakdown voltage at a fixed reference temperature before and after stress (Yun et al.; Huang et al.); IR thermography, SEM and EBIC (Choi et al.; Yun et al.); unbiased storage as a control (Yun et al.; Choi et al.).
Look-alikes: The normal temperature rise of the breakdown voltage, about 12.8 $mV/K$ for a 25 $V$ APD (Huang et al., computed), which can mimic drift if the temperature is not controlled; a higher dark current from radiation damage (see the Radiation page).

3. Prevention

Design: Limit the avalanche current with series resistance and keep the bias below breakdown with temperature compensation (Choi et al.; Huang et al.); shape the guard ring against edge breakdown (Choi et al.).
Material and process: Use clean passivation free of mobile ions at the junction perimeter (Yun et al.).
Operation: Keep the photocurrent and reverse current below the overload threshold, about 11 $mA$ for the waveguide PIN of Park et al.
Screening and test: Biased high-temperature life tests at several currents and temperatures, since storage alone does not reveal the failure mode (Choi et al.; Yun et al.); measure at a fixed temperature, since the breakdown coefficient is comparable to the failure criterion (Huang et al.).

Dark Current and Breakdown Drift

Name	Formula	Related Formulae	Variables/Constants
Temperature dependence of the dark current	$I_{d} = I_{d i f f} + I_{g r} + I_{s u r f}, I_{g r} \propto n_{i} \propto T^{3/2} e^{- E_{g} / (2 k_{B} T)}$	$I_{d i f f} \propto n_{i}^{2} \propto T^{3} e^{- E_{g} / (k_{B} T)}$	$I_{d} : d a r k c u r r e n t$ $I_{d i f f} : d i f f u s i o n c u r r e n t$ $I_{g r} : g e n er a t i o n - r eco mbina t i o n c u r r e n t in t h e d e pl e t i o n r e g i o n$ $I_{s u r f} : s u r f a ce l e ak a g e a t t h e j u n c t i o n p er im e t er$ $n_{i} : in t r in s i c c a r r i er d e n s i t y$ $T : ab so l u t e t e m p er a t u r e$ $E_{g} : ban d g a p$ $k_{B} : B o l t z mann co n s t an t (8.617 \times 1 0^{- 5} eV / K) (ba c k g r o u n d k n o w l e d g e; d e v i ce p h y s i cs o n t h e p h o t o d i o d e p a g es); H u an g e t a l . : ab o u t 13.4 nA a t 0.9 V_{b r} an d 25^{\circ} C f or a 20 μ m I n G a A s / I n A l A s A P D; C h o i e t a l . : t h e d a r k c u r r e n t o f pl ana r I n G a A s / I n P A P D s r i ses b y a f e w t e n s o f nA f r o m 298 t o 498 K; P a r k e t a l . : 1.35 nA a t 23^{\circ} C f or a w a v e g u i d e I n G a A s P I N p h o t o d i o d e$ $(co m p u t e d : f or I n G a A s w i t h E_{g} = 0.75 eV (a ss u m e d), t h e g e n er a t i o n c u r r e n t g r o w s b y 5.3 p er ce n t p er k e l v in a t 300 K an d d o u b l es ab o u t e v er y 13 K)$
Temperature coefficient of the breakdown voltage	$V_{b r} (T) = V_{b r, 0} [1 + β_{b r} (T - T_{0})]$	$Δ V_{b r, cr i t} = 1 V or \pm 10% of V_{b r}$	$V_{b r} : b r e ak d o w n v o l t a g e a t t e m p er a t u r e T$ $V_{b r, 0} : v a l u e a t T_{0}$ $β_{b r} : n or ma l i z e d t e m p er a t u r e coe f f i c i e n t$ $Δ V_{b r, cr i t} : f ai l u r e cr i t er i o n; H u an g e t a l . : β_{b r} o f ab o u t 5.1 \times 1 0^{- 4} K^{- 1} f r o m 25 t o 145^{\circ} C (T an e t a l . 2010 : 7.2 \times 1 0^{- 4} K^{- 1}), V_{b r} = 24 t o 26 V a t 10 μ A, f ai l u r e a t a 1 V c han g e; C h o i e t a l . : f ai l u r e a t a V_{b r} s hi f t b ey o n d \pm 10 p er ce n t a t 10 μ A or a d a r k c u r r e n t ab o v e 1 μ A a t 0.95 V_{b r}, V_{b r} r i ses l in e a r l y w i t h t e m p er a t u r e t h r o ug h im p a c t i o ni z a t i o n, an d d e g r a d e d d e v i ces s h o w a l o w er V_{b r} an d a hi g h er d a r k c u r r e n t; Y u n e t a l . : f ai l u r e a t a d a r k c u r r e n t ab o v e 1 μ A a t 90 p er ce n t o f V_{b r} a t 25^{\circ} C$ $(co m p u t e d : f or 25 V, 12.8 mV/K, so 60 K o f t e m p er a t u r e er r or s hi f t s V_{b r} b y 0.77 V, c l ose t o t h e 1 V cr i t er i o n, an d b y 1.08 V w i t h T an e t a l .^{'} s coe f f i c i e n t)$
Time dependence of the degradation	$I_{d} (t) = I_{d 0} e^{t / τ_{d}}, V_{b r} (t) = V_{b r 0} - s t$	$t_{f} : I_{d} (t_{f}) = 1 μ A$	$I_{d} (t) : d a r k c u r r e n t a f t er s t r ess t im e t$ $I_{d 0} : ini t ia l v a l u e$ $τ_{d} : g r o w t h t im e, V_{b r} (t) : b r e ak d o w n v o l t a g e$ $s : r a t e o f i t s d ecr e a se$ $t_{f} : f ai l u r e t im e; Y u n e t a l . (A l G a A s / G a A s M Q W A P D s, V_{b r} 7.5 t o 9 V, 10 μ A r e v er se c u r r e n t a t 100, 150 an d 200^{\circ} C f or 200 h, f o u r d e v i ces e a c h) : t h e d a r k c u r r e n t r ose e x p o n e n t ia l l y w i t h t im e an d t h e b r e ak d o w n v o l t a g e f e l l n e a r l y l in e a r l y, u nbia se d bak in g a t 200^{\circ} C d e g r a d e d m u c h l ess t han bia se d a g in g, an d S E M an d E B I C p o in t e d t o i o ni c co n t amina t i o n in t h e p a ss i v a t i o n a t t h e j u n c t i o n p er im e t er, p oss ib l y a t m e t a l - r i c h p r ec i p i t a t es o n d i s l oc a t i o n s$ $(co m p u t e d : n o n e; t h e e x p o n e n t ia l g r o w t h m e an s t h e f ai l u r e t im e d e p e n d s o n l y l o g a r i t hmi c a l l y o n t h e cr i t er i o n, so 1 μ A a g ain s t 0.1 μ A c han g es t_{f} b y τ_{d} ln 10)$

Life Tests of Avalanche Photodiodes

Name	Formula	Related Formulae	Variables/Constants
Activation energy from two stress temperatures	$E_{a} = \frac{k _{B} l n ( t _{50, 1} / t _{50, 2} )}{1/ T _{1} - 1/ T _{2}}$	$t_{50} (T_{u se}) = t_{50, 1} exp [\frac{E _{a}}{k _{B}} (\frac{1}{T _{u se}} - \frac{1}{T _{1}})]$	$E_{a} : a c t i v a t i o n e n er g y$ $k_{B} : B o l t z mann co n s t an t (8.617 \times 1 0^{- 5} eV / K)$ $t_{50, 1} an d t_{50, 2} : m e d ian l i v es a t ab so l u t e t e m p er a t u r es T_{1} an d T_{2}, t_{50} (T_{u se}) : m e d ian l i f e a t u se; H u an g e t a l . : m e d ian s o f 896 h a t 165^{\circ} C an d 446 h a t 175^{\circ} C, E_{a} = 1.18 eV, ab o u t 6900 y e a r s a t 50^{\circ} C a g ain s t a 20 y e a r T e l cor d ia r e q u i r e m e n t, an d a l l A P D s p a sse d 5100 h a t 85^{\circ} C an d 100 μ A; Y u n e t a l . : m e d ian s o f ab o u t 1400, 210 an d 70 h a t 100, 150 an d 200^{\circ} C, E_{a} = 0.46 eV an d ab o u t 4.8 \times 1 0^{4} h a t r oo m t e m p er a t u r e; C h o i e t a l . : E_{a} = 1.55 eV f r o m an E y r in g m o d e l an d a minim u m M T T F o f ab o u t 5.44 \times 1 0^{21} h a t r oo m t e m p er a t u r e an d 100 μ A$ $(co m p u t e d : H u an g^{'} s m e d ian s g i v e 1.18 eV an d 6940 y e a r s a t 50^{\circ} C, b u t \pm 0.2 eV c han g es t hi s b y 6.6 t im es; Y u n^{'} s d a t a g i v e 0.46 eV o v er a l l, 0.52 eV f r o m 100 t o 150^{\circ} C an d 0.38 eV f r o m 150 t o 200^{\circ} C, an d 4.95 \times 1 0^{4} h a t 25^{\circ} C; H u an g^{'} s m e d ian a t 85^{\circ} C w o u l d b e 9.7 \times 1 0^{5} h, so 5100 h i s 0.5 p er ce n t o f i t)$
Current and temperature acceleration of APD life	$t_{50} = A I^{- n} exp (\frac{E _{a}}{k _{B} T})$	$F (t) = Φ (\frac{l n t - l n t _{50}}{σ})$	$t_{50} : m e d ian l i f e$ $A : co n s t an t$ $I : r e v er se (a v a l an c h e) c u r r e n t$ $n : c u r r e n t e x p o n e n t$ $E_{a} : a c t i v a t i o n e n er g y$ $k_{B} : B o l t z mann co n s t an t (8.617 \times 1 0^{- 5} eV / K)$ $T : ab so l u t e t e m p er a t u r e (m o d i f i e d B l a c k f or m u se d b y H u an g e t a l ., E y r in g f or m b y C h o i e t a l .), F (t) : l o g n or ma l c u m u l a t i v e f ai l u r e$ $Φ : s t an d a r d n or ma l d i s t r ib u t i o n$ $σ : l o g n or ma l s ha p e; C h o i e t a l . (10 G bi t / s pl ana r I n G a A s / I n P A P D s in T O - 46 w i t h tw o 1 kΩ ser i es r es i s t or s) : 498 K s t or a g e f or 100 h w i t h o u t c u r r e n t an d 180 h a t 100 μ A c a u se d n o d e g r a d a t i o n, 448 K a t 500 μ A a l m os t n o n e in 2000 h b u t f ai l u r es a t 1000 μ A, main t es t s a t 473 an d 498 K w i t h 500 an d 1000 μ A, f ai l u r e b y p r e ma t u r e e d g e b r e ak d o w n n e a r t h e g u a r d r in g see n in I R t h er m o g r a p h y, an d e l ec t r i c a l s t r ess d o mina t e d t h er ma l s t r ess; Y u n e t a l . : σ = 1.81, a w e a r - o u t m o d e$ $(co m p u t e d : σ = 1.81 p u t s t h e 1 p er ce n t f ai l u r e t im e a t 0.015 o f t h e m e d ian; a 1.55 eV f a c t or f r o m 448 t o 298 K i s 5.9 \times 1 0^{8}, so t h e 5.44 \times 1 0^{21} h es t ima t e a l so r e l i es o n a l a r g e c u r r e n t a cce l er a t i o n an d a l o n g e x t r a p o l a t i o n)$

Overload Failure

Name	Formula	Related Formulae	Variables/Constants
Junction failure threshold under overload	$I_{f ai l} \approx 11 mA, Δ T \propto I^{2}$	$P_{D} = V_{R} I$	$I_{f ai l} : p h o t oc u r r e n t or r e v er se c u r r e n t a t w hi c h t h e j u n c t i o n f ai l s$ $Δ T : t e m p er a t u r e r i se (f i tt e d b y P a r k e t a l . a s I^{2} /25 w i t h an a r bi t r a r y co n s t an t)$ $P_{D} : d i ss i p a t e d p o w er$ $V_{R} : r e v er se v o l t a g e$ $I : c u r r e n t; P a r k e t a l . (s i d e - i l l u mina t e d I n P / I n G a A s P I N p h o t o d i o d e, 20 μ m m u l t im o d e w a v e g u i d e, 100 or 200 μ m l o n g) : n or ma l I - V a t 10 mA, d e g r a d a t i o n f r o m 11 mA an d a s h or t b e tw ee n t h e e l ec t r o d es a t 12 mA, a co n s t an t 11 mA t h r es h o l d ab o v e 38 V an d ab o v e 190^{\circ} C, J o u l e h e a t in g b e l o w t h ese v a l u es an d e n er g e t i c c a r r i er s ab o v e t h e m, b o t h b r e ak in g t h e cr y s t a l a t t h e e n d f a ce t, an d n o d a r k - c u r r e n t c han g e a f t er min u t es a t 9 mA, 40 V an d 250^{\circ} C$ $(co m p u t e d : 11 mA a t 40 V i s 0.44 W in a 20 b y 200 μ m d e v i ce)$

Important Questions

Ques: Is the activation energy of APD wear-out 0.46, 1.18 or 1.55 eV?

The three sources measure different devices. Yun et al. found 0.46 $eV$ for AlGaAs/GaAs multiple-quantum-well APDs whose failure came from ionic contamination of the passivation, Huang et al. 1.18 $eV$ for top-illuminated InGaAs/InAlAs APDs, and Choi et al. 1.55 $eV$ for planar InGaAs/InP APDs failing by edge breakdown. Yun’s three temperatures also give 0.52 $eV$ between 100 and 150 $^{\circ} C$ and 0.38 $eV$ between 150 and 200 $^{\circ} C$ (computed), so even one device type is not a single process. For a modern InGaAs APD, about 1.2 $eV$ is the more likely value, since it agrees with the other values Huang et al. cite, while 0.46 $eV$ is the safer choice for a passivation-limited device. A wrong choice changes the extrapolated life by orders of magnitude. Reference: I. Yun, Y. Wang, K. F. Brennan, G. S. May, C. J. Summers and B. K. Wagner, ‘Reliability Assessment of Multiple Quantum Well Avalanche Photodiodes’, Georgia Institute of Technology (NTRS 19960028168; year not stated, after 1993; OCR partly garbled, fetch-tool summary); J. Huang, H. Chang, Y.-H. Jan, H. Chen, C. Ni, E. Chou, S. Lee and J.-W. Shi, ‘Highly Reliable, Cost-effective and Temperature-stable Top-illuminated Avalanche Photodiode (APD) for 100G Inter-Datacenter ER4-Lite Applications’, Proc. PHOTOPTICS 2018, 119-124, doi:10.5220/0006510601190124 (fetch-tool summary); H. Choi, C.-Y. Park, S.-H. Baek, G. Y. Moon and I. Yun, ‘Evaluation of the Long-Term Reliability of Open-Tube Diffused Planar InGaAs/InP Avalanche Photodiodes under a Hybrid of Thermal and Electrical Stresses’, Electronics 11(5), 802 (2022) (fetch-tool summary).

Ques: How reliable is a projected APD life of 6900 years?

It is a long extrapolation from two close temperatures. Huang et al. measured medians of 896 $h$ at 165 $^{\circ} C$ and 446 $h$ at 175 $^{\circ} C$ , which give 1.18 $eV$ and about 6940 years at 50 $^{\circ} C$ (computed). The two points are only 10 $K$ apart, so a small error in the medians moves the activation energy strongly, and an error of 0.2 $eV$ changes the projection by a factor of 6.6 (computed). The result is still useful as a margin: even a much lower life far exceeds the 20 year Telcordia requirement, and the 5100 $h$ at 85 $^{\circ} C$ that all devices passed is only 0.5 per cent of the median predicted there (computed). Choi et al.’s $5.44 \times 1 0^{21}$ $h$ shows the same caution, since it relies on a large current acceleration as well. Reference: J. Huang, H. Chang, Y.-H. Jan, H. Chen, C. Ni, E. Chou, S. Lee and J.-W. Shi, ‘Highly Reliable, Cost-effective and Temperature-stable Top-illuminated Avalanche Photodiode (APD) for 100G Inter-Datacenter ER4-Lite Applications’, Proc. PHOTOPTICS 2018, 119-124, doi:10.5220/0006510601190124 (fetch-tool summary); H. Choi, C.-Y. Park, S.-H. Baek, G. Y. Moon and I. Yun, ‘Evaluation of the Long-Term Reliability of Open-Tube Diffused Planar InGaAs/InP Avalanche Photodiodes under a Hybrid of Thermal and Electrical Stresses’, Electronics 11(5), 802 (2022) (fetch-tool summary); Failure Rate and the Bathtub Curve page of this vault.

Ques: Why must APD breakdown drift be measured at a fixed temperature?

Because the breakdown voltage itself moves with temperature by an amount comparable to the failure criterion. Huang et al. measured a normalized coefficient of about $5.1 \times 1 0^{- 4}$ per kelvin for their 24 to 26 $V$ APDs, against $7.2 \times 1 0^{- 4}$ reported by Tan et al., and they define failure as a 1 $V$ change. For a 25 $V$ device this is 12.8 $mV/K$ , so a measurement 60 $K$ warmer would read 0.77 $V$ higher, and 1.08 $V$ with Tan’s coefficient (computed), nearly a failure without any degradation. Choi et al. likewise note that the breakdown rises linearly with temperature through impact ionization while degradation lowers it. Yun et al. therefore measured dark current and breakdown at 25 $^{\circ} C$ after each stress interval. Reference: J. Huang, H. Chang, Y.-H. Jan, H. Chen, C. Ni, E. Chou, S. Lee and J.-W. Shi, ‘Highly Reliable, Cost-effective and Temperature-stable Top-illuminated Avalanche Photodiode (APD) for 100G Inter-Datacenter ER4-Lite Applications’, Proc. PHOTOPTICS 2018, 119-124, doi:10.5220/0006510601190124 (fetch-tool summary); H. Choi, C.-Y. Park, S.-H. Baek, G. Y. Moon and I. Yun, ‘Evaluation of the Long-Term Reliability of Open-Tube Diffused Planar InGaAs/InP Avalanche Photodiodes under a Hybrid of Thermal and Electrical Stresses’, Electronics 11(5), 802 (2022) (fetch-tool summary); I. Yun, Y. Wang, K. F. Brennan, G. S. May, C. J. Summers and B. K. Wagner, ‘Reliability Assessment of Multiple Quantum Well Avalanche Photodiodes’, Georgia Institute of Technology (NTRS 19960028168; year not stated, after 1993; OCR partly garbled, fetch-tool summary).

Ques: What physically fails in a degraded APD?

The weakest part of the junction, usually its edge. Yun et al. used SEM and EBIC on AlGaAs/GaAs APDs and found leakage paths from ionic impurities or contamination in the passivation at the junction perimeter, which eventually short the junction under field; they suspect metal-rich precipitates at dislocations and note that sodium is a common contaminant of silicon nitride. The breakdown voltage fell nearly linearly with time, which they attribute to field- and temperature-assisted drift of impurities. Choi et al. located the failure in planar InGaAs/InP APDs with IR thermography as premature edge breakdown near the guard ring, where the field concentrates. Both point to the perimeter rather than the bulk of the multiplication region, so passivation and guard-ring design set the life. Reference: I. Yun, Y. Wang, K. F. Brennan, G. S. May, C. J. Summers and B. K. Wagner, ‘Reliability Assessment of Multiple Quantum Well Avalanche Photodiodes’, Georgia Institute of Technology (NTRS 19960028168; year not stated, after 1993; OCR partly garbled, fetch-tool summary); H. Choi, C.-Y. Park, S.-H. Baek, G. Y. Moon and I. Yun, ‘Evaluation of the Long-Term Reliability of Open-Tube Diffused Planar InGaAs/InP Avalanche Photodiodes under a Hybrid of Thermal and Electrical Stresses’, Electronics 11(5), 802 (2022) (fetch-tool summary).

Ques: Can a high-temperature bake replace a biased life test for photodiodes?

No. Yun et al. found that unbiased baking at 200 $^{\circ} C$ produced significantly less degradation than biased aging, and Choi et al. saw no meaningful change after 100 $h$ of storage at 498 $K$ without current, while the same temperature with avalanche current caused failures. Choi et al. conclude that the electrical stress was more dominant than the thermal stress: at 448 $K$ their APDs survived 2000 $h$ at 500 $μ A$ almost unchanged but failed at 1000 $μ A$ . The failure needs the field and the current at the perimeter, which drive impurity drift and edge breakdown. Qualification must therefore use biased tests at several currents and temperatures and fit both the current exponent and the activation energy, as the modified Black and Eyring models of these papers do. Reference: I. Yun, Y. Wang, K. F. Brennan, G. S. May, C. J. Summers and B. K. Wagner, ‘Reliability Assessment of Multiple Quantum Well Avalanche Photodiodes’, Georgia Institute of Technology (NTRS 19960028168; year not stated, after 1993; OCR partly garbled, fetch-tool summary); H. Choi, C.-Y. Park, S.-H. Baek, G. Y. Moon and I. Yun, ‘Evaluation of the Long-Term Reliability of Open-Tube Diffused Planar InGaAs/InP Avalanche Photodiodes under a Hybrid of Thermal and Electrical Stresses’, Electronics 11(5), 802 (2022) (fetch-tool summary); J. Huang, H. Chang, Y.-H. Jan, H. Chen, C. Ni, E. Chou, S. Lee and J.-W. Shi, ‘Highly Reliable, Cost-effective and Temperature-stable Top-illuminated Avalanche Photodiode (APD) for 100G Inter-Datacenter ER4-Lite Applications’, Proc. PHOTOPTICS 2018, 119-124, doi:10.5220/0006510601190124 (fetch-tool summary).

Ques: How much current can a waveguide PIN photodiode survive?

Park et al. found a sharp threshold for side-illuminated InP/InGaAs PIN photodiodes with a 20 $μ m$ waveguide. The I-V curve stayed normal at 10 $mA$ , began to degrade at 11 $mA$ and showed a short between the electrodes at 12 $mA$ , with an uncertainty of about 0.5 $mA$ . The threshold was constant at 11 $mA$ above 38 $V$ and above 190 $^{\circ} C$ . Below these values they explain the failure by Joule heating, which they fit as rising with the square of the current, and above them by energetic carriers; both break the crystal at the end facet, where the light enters. At 40 $V$ , 11 $mA$ is 0.44 $W$ in a 20 by 200 $μ m$ device (computed). Short stresses below the threshold left the dark current unchanged. Reference: S. Park, E. Sim, J.-W. Park, J.-S. Sim, H.-W. Song, S. H. Oh and Y. Baek, ‘Temperature, Current, and Voltage Dependences of Junction Failure in PIN Photodiodes’, ETRI Journal 28(5), 555-560 (2006) (fetch-tool summary); Electrical Stress page of this vault.

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Photodetectors (PIN and Avalanche Photodiodes)